Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies (or Netherlands East Indies; Dutch:
Nederlands(ch)-Indië; Indonesian: Hindia Belanda) was a Dutch colony. It was
formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which
came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800.
During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were
expanded, reaching their greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century.
This colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch
Empire's rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash
crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was
based on rigid racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate
from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia came into use
for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local
intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, and
set the stage for an independence movement.
Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch
colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945,
Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure
during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution. The Netherlands formally
recognised Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table
Conference with the exception of the Netherlands New Guinea (Western New
Guinea), which was ceded to Indonesia in 1963 under the provisions of the New
York Agreement.
Etymology
The word Indies comes from Latin: Indus. The original name
Dutch Indies (Dutch: Nederlandsch-Indië) was translated by the English as the
Dutch East Indies, to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies. The name
Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company's documents of the
early 1620s.
Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the
Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, and colonial Indonesia
interchangeably.
History
Company rule
Centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian
archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal
trading states and inland agrarian states ( the most important were Srivijaya
and Majapahit ). The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the
late 15th century. Following disruption of Dutch access to spices in
Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to
access spices directly from Asia.
When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC).
When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC).
The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses,
and make treaties across Asia. A capital was established in Batavia (now
Jakarta), which became the centre of the VOC's Asian trading network. To
their original monopolies on nutmeg, peppers, cloves and cinnamon, the company
and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like
coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their
commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory. Smuggling, the
ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the
end of the 18th century.
The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java, parts of Sumatra, much of Maluku, and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar, Manado, and Kupang) were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies.
The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java, parts of Sumatra, much of Maluku, and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar, Manado, and Kupang) were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies.
Dutch Conquests
From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th
century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the
Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous.Although Java was dominated by
the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time,
including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. There were numerous wars and
disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted
efforts to establish a Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up
its military forces. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th
century. Finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended
across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia.
In 1806, with the Netherlands under French domination,
Napoleon appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led
to the 1808 appointment of Marshall Herman Willem Daendels as Governor General
of the Dutch East Indies. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch
East Indies ports including Java and Thomas Stamford Raffles became Lieutenant
Governor. Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in
exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula and
Dutch India. The resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain
between Malaysia and Indonesia.
Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the
expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch's
Governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as the foundation of
official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka. However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of
wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands.Motivations included: the protection of areas already held; the intervention of
Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion; and to establish Dutch claims
throughout the archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers
during the European push for colonial possessions. As exploitation of
Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct
Dutch government control or influence.
The Dutch 7th Battalion advancing in Bali in 1846.
The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri
War (1821–38) and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese
resistance. The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan
resulted in the defeat of the Sultan. After failed expeditions to conquer
Bali in 1846 and 1848, an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch
control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a
Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended
with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on
both Java and Sumatra during the remainder of the 19th century.
However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law.
However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law.
Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial
rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and
control taken from the remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi
was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military
conquests in 1906 and 1908, as were the remaining independent kingdoms in
Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Nusa Tenggara. Other rulers including
the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan), and Palembang in
Sumatra, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby
avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions
under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was
brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would
form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.
World War II and Independence
Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and B.C. de Jonge, the
last and second-to-last Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies before
Japanese invasion.
The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to
Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and
Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and
Japan signed a treaty lining out "spheres of influence". The Dutch
East Indies fell into Japan's sphere.
The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to
defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in
search of Dutch oil. On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies
Campaign, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific
War. The rubber plantations and oil fields of the Dutch East Indies were
considered crucial for the Japanese war effort.[citation needed] Allied forces
were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch
East Indies Army surrendered in Java.
Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and
the Indonesian National Awakening, a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East
Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the colonial
Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out
to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial
government.
The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links amongst the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations.
The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links amongst the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations.
According to a UN report, four million people died in
Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. Following the Japanese
surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta
declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as
the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied
most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of
Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian
independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian
sovereignty with the exception of the Netherlands New Guinea (Western New
Guinea). Sukarno's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the
territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to
the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration
in May 1963.
Economic History
The economic history of the colony was closely related to
the economic health of the mother country. Despite increasing returns from
the Dutch system of land tax, Dutch finances had been severely affected by the
cost of the Java War and the Padri War, and the Dutch loss of Belgium in 1830
brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. In 1830, a new
Governor-General, Johannes van den Bosch, was appointed to make the Indies pay
their way through Dutch exploitation of its resources.
With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830, it was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government-controlled forced cultivation. Termed cultuurstelsel (cultivation system) in Dutch and tanam paksa (forced plantation) in Indonesian, farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.
Much of Java became a Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century which were reinvested into the Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy. Between 1830 and 1870, 1 billion guilders were taken from Indonesia, on average making 25 per cent of the annual Dutch Government budget.The Cultivation System, however, brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants, who suffered famine and epidemics in the 1840s.
With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830, it was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government-controlled forced cultivation. Termed cultuurstelsel (cultivation system) in Dutch and tanam paksa (forced plantation) in Indonesian, farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.
Much of Java became a Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century which were reinvested into the Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy. Between 1830 and 1870, 1 billion guilders were taken from Indonesia, on average making 25 per cent of the annual Dutch Government budget.The Cultivation System, however, brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants, who suffered famine and epidemics in the 1840s.
Critical public opinion in the Netherlands led to much of
the Cultivation System's excesses being eliminated under the agrarian reforms
of the "Liberal Period". Dutch private capital flowed in after 1850,
especially in tin mining and plantation estate agriculture. The Marktavious
Company's tin mines off the eastern Sumatra coast was financed by a syndicate
of Dutch entrepreneurs, including the younger brother of King William III.
Mining began in 1860. In 1863 Jacob Nienhuys obtained a concession from the
Sultanate of Deli (East Sumatra) for a large tobacco estate (Deli Company).
From 1870, the Indies were opened up to private enterprise and Dutch businessmen set up large, profitable plantations. Sugar production doubled between 1870 and 1885; new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished, and rubber was introduced, leading to dramatic increases in Dutch profits. Changes were not limited to Java, or agriculture; oil from Sumatra and Kalimantan became a valuable resource for industrialising Europe. Dutch commercial interests expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly more territory coming under direct Dutch control or dominance in the latter half of the 19th century. However, the resulting scarcity of land for rice production, combined with dramatically increasing populations, especially in Java, led to further hardships.
From 1870, the Indies were opened up to private enterprise and Dutch businessmen set up large, profitable plantations. Sugar production doubled between 1870 and 1885; new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished, and rubber was introduced, leading to dramatic increases in Dutch profits. Changes were not limited to Java, or agriculture; oil from Sumatra and Kalimantan became a valuable resource for industrialising Europe. Dutch commercial interests expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly more territory coming under direct Dutch control or dominance in the latter half of the 19th century. However, the resulting scarcity of land for rice production, combined with dramatically increasing populations, especially in Java, led to further hardships.
Different flags in Dutch East India
The colonial exploitation of Indonesia's wealth contributed
to the industrialisation of the Netherlands, while simultaneously laying the
foundation for the industrialisation of Indonesia. The Dutch introduced coffee,
tea, cacao, tobacco and rubber and large expanses of Java became plantations
cultivated by Javanese peasants, collected by Chinese intermediaries, and sold
on overseas markets by European merchants. In the late 19th century
economic growth was based on heavy world demand for tea, coffee, and cinchona.
The government invested heavily in a railroad network (150 miles long in 1873,
1,200 in 1900), as well as telegraph lines, and entrepreneurs opened banks,
shops and newspapers.
The Dutch East Indies produced most of the world's supply of quinine and pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products, and a fifth of its tea, sugar, coffee, and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one of the world's most significant colonial powers. The Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij shipping line supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter-island shipping through to Batavia, rather than through Singapore, thus focussing more economic activity on Java.
The Dutch East Indies produced most of the world's supply of quinine and pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products, and a fifth of its tea, sugar, coffee, and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one of the world's most significant colonial powers. The Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij shipping line supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter-island shipping through to Batavia, rather than through Singapore, thus focussing more economic activity on Java.
The worldwide recession of the late 1880s and early 1890s
saw the commodity prices on which the colony depended collapse. Journalists and
civil servants observed that the majority of the Indies population were no
better off than under the previous regulated Cultivation System economy and
tens of thousands starved. Commodity prices recovered from the recession,
leading to increased investment in the colony. The sugar, tin, copra and coffee
trade on which the colony had been built thrived, and rubber, tobacco, tea and
oil also became principal exports.[45] Political reform increased the autonomy
of the local colonial administration, moving away from central control from the
Netherlands, whilst power was also diverged from the central Batavia government
to more localised governing units.
The world economy recovered in the late 1890s and prosperity
returned. Foreign investment, especially by the British, were encouraged. By
1900, foreign-held assets in the Netherlands Indies totalled about 750 million
guilders ($300 million), mostly in Java.
After 1900 upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads
was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy,
facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950 Dutch
engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted
surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces.
In addition the Dutch built, 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. Wim Ravesteijn has said that, "With these public works, Dutch engineers constructed the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state."
In addition the Dutch built, 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. Wim Ravesteijn has said that, "With these public works, Dutch engineers constructed the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state."
Social History
In 1898, the population of Java numbered 28 million with
another 7 million on Indonesia's outer islands. The first half of 20th
century saw large-scale immigration of Dutch and other Europeans to the colony,
where they worked in either the government or private sectors. By 1930, there
were more than 240,000 people with European legal status in the colony, making
up less than 0.5% of the total population.
Almost 75% of these Europeans were in fact native Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans.
1930 census of the Dutch East Indies
Rank Group Number Percentage
1 Indigenous
islanders (Pribumi) 59,138,067 97.4%
2 Chinese 1,233,214 2.0%
3 Dutch
people and Eurasians 240,417 0.4%
4 Other
foreign orientals 115,535 0.2%
Total 60,727,233 100%
The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social
class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers and pioneers. They lived
together with the "natives", but at the top of a rigid social and
racial caste system.The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of
citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added
in 1920.
In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical
Policy, under which the colonial government had a duty to further the welfare
of the Indonesian people in health and education. Other new measures under the
policy included irrigation programs, transmigration, communications, flood
mitigation, industrialisation, and protection of native industry. Industrialisation did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians, and
Indonesia remained an agricultural colony; by 1930, there were 17 cities with
populations over 50,000 and their combined populations numbered 1.87 million of
the colony's 60 million.
Government
Education
The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the
most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children and those of the Indonesian
upper class. A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with separate
schools for Indonesians, Arabs, and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a
Dutch curriculum. Ordinary Indonesians were educated in Malay in Roman alphabet
with "link" schools preparing bright Indonesian students for entry
into the Dutch-language schools. Vocational schools and programs were set
up by the Indies government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles
in the colonial economy. Chinese and Arabs, officially termed "foreign
orientals", could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary
schools.
Graduates of Dutch schools opened their own schools modelled
on the Dutch school system, as did Christian missionaries, Theosophical
Societies, and Indonesian cultural associations. This proliferation of schools
was further boosted by new Muslim schools in the Western mould that also
offered secular subjects. According to the 1930 census, 6% of Indonesians
were literate, however, this figure recognised only graduates from Western
schools and those who could read and write in a language in the Roman alphabet.
It did not include graduates of non-Western schools or those who could read but
not write Arabic, Malay or Dutch, or those who could write in non-Roman
alphabets such as Batak, Javanese, Chinese, or Arabic.
Some of higher education institutions were also established.
In 1898 the Dutch East Indies government established a school to train medical
doctors, named School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen (STOVIA). Many STOVIA
graduates later played important roles in Indonesia's national movement toward
independence as well in developing medical education in Indonesia, such as Dr.
Wahidin Soedirohoesodo, who established the Budi Utomo political society. De
Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung established in 1920 by the Dutch colonial
administration to meet the needs of technical resources at its colony. One of
Technische Hogeschool graduate is Sukarno whom later would lead the Indonesian
National Revolution.
In 1924, the colonial government again decided to open a new tertiary-level educational facility, the Rechts Hogeschool (RHS), to train civilian officers and servants. In 1927, STOVIA's status was changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to Geneeskundige Hogeschool (GHS). The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine of University of Indonesia. The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are still clearly visible in such technological areas as irrigation design. To this day, the ideas of Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices.[58] Moreover, the two highest internationally ranking universities of Indonesia, the University of Indonesia est.1898 and the Bandung Institute of Technology est.1920, were both founded during the colonial era.
In 1924, the colonial government again decided to open a new tertiary-level educational facility, the Rechts Hogeschool (RHS), to train civilian officers and servants. In 1927, STOVIA's status was changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to Geneeskundige Hogeschool (GHS). The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine of University of Indonesia. The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are still clearly visible in such technological areas as irrigation design. To this day, the ideas of Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices.[58] Moreover, the two highest internationally ranking universities of Indonesia, the University of Indonesia est.1898 and the Bandung Institute of Technology est.1920, were both founded during the colonial era.
Education reforms, and modest political reform, resulted in
a small elite of highly educated indigenous Indonesians, who promoted the idea
of an independent and unified "Indonesia" that would bring together
disparate indigenous groups of the Dutch East Indies. A period termed the
Indonesian National Revival, the first half of the 20th century saw the
nationalist movement develop strongly, but also face Dutch oppression.
Law and Administration
Governor-General's palace in Batavia (1880-1900).
Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony
resided with the 'Office of the Governor-General'. During the Dutch East Indies
era the Governor-General functioned as chief executive president of colonial
government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial (KNIL) army. Until
1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the
Governor-General and were entirely dependent on the central administration of
the 'Office of the Governor-General' for their budgets. Until 1815 the
Governor-General had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any
publication in the colony. The so-called Exorbitant powers of the Governor-General
allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and
order, without involving any Court of Law.
Until 1848 the Governor-General was directly appointed by
the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch
metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925) the
Governor-General ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie
(Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the
Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague. From 1815 to 1848 the Ministry was
under direct authority of the Dutch King. In the 20th century the colony
gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with treasury
separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913, and
quasi diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji
pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing
with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the
Ministry of Colonies.
House of Resident (colonial administrator) in Surabaya.
The Governor-General led a hierarchy of Dutch officials; the
Residents, the Assistant Residents, and District Officers called Controllers.
Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were
installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil
service. While they lost real control, their wealth and splendour under the
Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was
cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous
civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native
troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910, the
Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia.
A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East
Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and
only a small portion of the indigenous population were able to vote for its
members. The Council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from
Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925
the Volksraad was made a semi legislative body; although decisions were still
made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the
Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad was dissolved in 1942 during the
Japanese occupation.
Supreme Court Building, Batavia.
The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its
colony. The highest court of law, the Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with
appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six Councils of
Justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the
European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous population.
The Land Councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established.
The Land Councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established.
By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the
colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated the most unruly
inmates. In Sawah Loento prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual
labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java)
and for women. In the female Boeloe prison in Semarang inmates had the
opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing,
weaving and making batik. This training was held in high esteem and helped
re-socialise women once they were outside the correctional facility.
In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea. As of 1927 political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands.
In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea. As of 1927 political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands.
Politically, the highly centralised power structure,
including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship, established by the
Dutch administration was carried over into the new Indonesian republic.
Administrative Divisions
The Dutch East Indies was divided into three Gouvernementen,
Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra, and three provincies in Java. Provincies and
Gouvernementen were both divided to Residencies but while the Residencies under
Provincies were divided again to regentschappen, Residencies under Gouvermenten
were divided to Afdeelingen first before being divided to regentschappen.
In 1942, the divisions were ;
In 1942, the divisions were ;
Sumatra
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden
Local Name : Aceh
Current English Name : Residency of Aceh and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 1,003,062
Area (km2) : 55392.23
Modern Area : Aceh, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Groot-Atjeh, Nordkust van Atjeh, Oostkust van Atjeh, Gajo en Alaslanden, Pidie and Westkust van Atjeh
Primary Resource(s): opium, gold, coffee
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Tapanoeli
Local Name : Tapanuli
Current English Name : Residency of Tapanuli
Population (1930) : 1,042,583
Modern Area : western part of North Sumatra, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Sibolga en Omstreken, Nias, Bataklanden and Padang Sidempoean
Primary Resource(s): camphor
Current English Name : Residency of Tapanuli
Population (1930) : 1,042,583
Area (km2) : 39076.87
Modern Area : western part of North Sumatra, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Sibolga en Omstreken, Nias, Bataklanden and Padang Sidempoean
Primary Resource(s): camphor
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Oostkust van Sumatra
Local Name : Sumatra Timur
Current English Name : Residency of Sumatra's East Coast
Population (1930) : 1,693,200
Modern Area : eastern part of North Sumatra and northern part of Riau, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Langkat, Deli en Serdang, Asahan, Simaloengoen en Karolanden, Siak and Bengkalis; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Medan, Bindjai, Tebing Tinggi, Tandjoeng Balai and Pematang Siantar
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
Current English Name : Residency of Sumatra's East Coast
Population (1930) : 1,693,200
Area (km2) : 94583.25
Modern Area : eastern part of North Sumatra and northern part of Riau, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Langkat, Deli en Serdang, Asahan, Simaloengoen en Karolanden, Siak and Bengkalis; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Medan, Bindjai, Tebing Tinggi, Tandjoeng Balai and Pematang Siantar
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
4. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Sumatra's Westkust
Local Name : Sumatra Barat
Current English Name : Residency of Sumatra's West Coast
Population (1930) : 1,910,298
Modern Area : West Sumatra including Mentawai Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Padang, Padangsche Bovenlanden, Agam, Solok, Limapoeloe Koto and Zuid Benedenlanden; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Padang, Bukittinggi and Sawahloento
Primary Resource(s): coal, black pepper, salt
Current English Name : Residency of Sumatra's West Coast
Population (1930) : 1,910,298
Area (km2) : 49778.10
Modern Area : West Sumatra including Mentawai Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Padang, Padangsche Bovenlanden, Agam, Solok, Limapoeloe Koto and Zuid Benedenlanden; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Padang, Bukittinggi and Sawahloento
Primary Resource(s): coal, black pepper, salt
5. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Riouw en Onderhoorigheden
Local Name : Riau
Current English Name : Residency of Riau and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 298,225
Modern Area : southern part of Riau and Riau Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Indragiri and Tandjoengpinang
Primary Resource(s): oil, fish Current English Name : Residency of Riau and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 298,225
Area (km2) : 31668.44
Modern Area : southern part of Riau and Riau Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Indragiri and Tandjoengpinang
6. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Djambi
Local Name : Jambi
Current English Name : Residency of Jambi
Population (1930) : 245,272
Modern Area : Jambi, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Djambi
Primary Resource(s): black pepper Current English Name : Residency of Jambi
Population (1930) : 245,272
Area (km2) : 44923.76
Modern Area : Jambi, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Djambi
7. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Bengkoelen
Local Name : Bengkulu
Current English Name : Residency of Bengkulu
Population (1930) : 323,123
Modern Area : Bengkulu, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Bengkoelen
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
Current English Name : Residency of Bengkulu
Population (1930) : 323,123
Area (km2) : 26249.39
Modern Area : Bengkulu, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Bengkoelen
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
8. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Palembang
Local Name : Palembang
Current English Name : Residency of Palembang
Population (1930) : 1,098,725
Area (km2) : 86355.65
Modern Area : South Sumatra, consist of the divisions (afdeeling) of Palembang Bovenlanden, Palembang Benedenlanden and Ogan en Komering-oeloe; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Palembang
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
Current English Name : Residency of Palembang
Population (1930) : 1,098,725
Area (km2) : 86355.65
Modern Area : South Sumatra, consist of the divisions (afdeeling) of Palembang Bovenlanden, Palembang Benedenlanden and Ogan en Komering-oeloe; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Palembang
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
9. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Bangka en Onderhoorigheden
Local Name : Bangka
Current English Name : Residency of Bangka and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 278,792
Modern Area : Bangka and Belitung Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Bangka and Billiton
Current English Name : Residency of Bangka and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 278,792
Area (km2) : 16774.70
Modern Area : Bangka and Belitung Islands, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Bangka and Billiton
Primary Resource(s): tin
10. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Lampongsche Districten
10. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Lampongsche Districten
Local Name : Lampung
Current English Name : Residency of Lampung District
Population (1930) : 361,563
Modern Area : Lampung, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Teloekbetoeng
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
Current English Name : Residency of Lampung District
Population (1930) : 361,563
Area (km2) : 28783.74
Modern Area : Lampung, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Teloekbetoeng
Primary Resource(s): black pepper
Java
Java was also divided to three provinces which overlap with
Pre-2000 boundary of java without Surakarta which in 1942 along with Yogyakarta
were not included in any provinces of Java, but considered Vorstenlanden van
Java (Princely States of Java)
West Java
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Bantam
Local Name : Banten
Current English Name : Residency of Banten
Population (1930) : 1,028,628
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Banten consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Serang, Lebak and Pandeglang
Primary Resource(s): black pepper, gold, poultry
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Batavia
Local Name : Betawi
Current English Name : Residency of Batavia
Population (1930) : 2,637,035
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Jakarta and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Batavia, Meester-Cornelis and Krawang; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Batavia
Primary Resource(s): rice, coffee
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Buitenzorg
Local Name : Bogor
Current English Name : Residency of Buitenzorg
Population (1930) : 2,212,997
Modern Area : Bogor and surroundings, consist of the regencies (regentschap) of Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi and Tjiandjoer; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Buitenzorg and Soekaboemi
Primary Resource(s): coffee
Local Name : Bogor
Current English Name : Residency of Buitenzorg
Population (1930) : 2,212,997
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Bogor and surroundings, consist of the regencies (regentschap) of Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi and Tjiandjoer; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Buitenzorg and Soekaboemi
Primary Resource(s): coffee
4. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Preanger
Local Name : Priangan
Current English Name : Residency of Preanger
Population (1930) : 3,448,796
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Bandung and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bandoeng, Soemedang, Tasikmalaja, Tjiamis and Garoet; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Bandoeng
Primary Resource(s): tea, coffee, quinine
5. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Cheribon
Local Name : Cirebon
Current English Name : Residency of Cirebon
Population (1930) : 2,069,690
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Cirebon and surroundings, consisting of regencies (regentschap) of Cheribon, Koeningan, Indramajoe and Madjalengka; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Cheribon
Primary Resource(s): black pepper, fish
Midden Java
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Pekalongan
Local Name : Pekalongan
Current English Name : Residency of Pekalongan
Population (1930) : 2,640,124
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Pekalongan, Tegal and surroundings, consisting of regencies (regentschap) of Pekalongan, Batang, Pemalang, Tegal and Brebes; and with the municipalities(stadsgemeente) of Pekalongan and Tegal
Primary Resource(s): fish, indigo, rice, sugar
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Banjoemas
Local Name : Banyumas
Current English Name : Residency of Banyumas
Population (1930) : 2,474,447
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Banyumas, Purwokerto and surroundings, consist of the regencies (regentschap) of Banjoemas, Poerwokerto, Poerbolinggo, Tjilatjap, Karanganjar and Bandjarnegara
Primary Resource(s): oil
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Kedoe
Local Name : Kedu
Current English Name : Residency of Kedu
Population (1930) : 2,129,894
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Magelang and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Magelang, Wonosobo, Temanggoeng, Poerworedjo, Koetoardjo and Keboemen; and with the municipality (stadsgemeente) of Magelang
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
4. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Semarang
Local Name : Semarang
Current English Name : Residency of Semarang
Population (1930) : 2,020,684
Modern Area : Semarang and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Semarang, Kendal, Demak and Grobogan; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Semarang and Salatiga
Primary Resource(s): timber, indigo, kapok
Local Name : Semarang
Current English Name : Residency of Semarang
Population (1930) : 2,020,684
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Semarang and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Semarang, Kendal, Demak and Grobogan; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Semarang and Salatiga
Primary Resource(s): timber, indigo, kapok
5. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Djepara-Rembang
Local Name : Jepara-Rembang
Current English Name : Residency of Jepara-Rembang
Population (1930) : 1,876,480
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Jepara, Rembang and surroundings, consisting of regencies (regentschap) of Pati, Djepara, Rembang, Blora and Koedoes
Primary Resource(s): timber, rice, cotton
Oost Java
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Madioen
Local Name : Madiun
Current English Name : Residency of Madiun
Population (1930) : 1,909,801
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Madiun and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Madioen, Magetan, Ngawi, Ponorogo and Patjitan; and with the municipality (stadsgemeente) of Madioen
Primary Resource(s): sugar
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Bodjonegoro
Local Name : Bojonegoro
Current English Name : Residency of Bojonegoro
Population (1930) : 1,986,129
Modern Area : Bojonegoro and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bodjonegoro, Toeban, Grisse and Lamongan
Primary Resource(s): fish, timber
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Kediri
Local Name : Bojonegoro
Current English Name : Residency of Bojonegoro
Population (1930) : 1,986,129
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Bojonegoro and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bodjonegoro, Toeban, Grisse and Lamongan
Primary Resource(s): fish, timber
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Kediri
Local Name : Kediri
Current English Name : Residency of Kediri
Population (1930) : 2,469,955
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Kediri and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Kediri, Ngandjoek, Blitar, Toeloengagoeng and Trenggalek; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Kediri and Blitar
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
4. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Soerabaja
Local Name : Surabaya
Current English Name : Residency of Surabaya
Population (1930) : 1,902,953
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Surabaya and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Soerabaja, Sidoardjo, Modjokerto and Djombang; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Soerabaja and Modjokerto
Primary Resource(s): fish
5. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Malang
Local Name : Malang
Current English Name : Residency of Malang
Population (1930) : 1,713,536
Modern Area : Malang and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Malang, Pasoeroean and Bangil; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Malang and Pasoeroean
Primary Resource(s): fruit
Local Name : Malang
Current English Name : Residency of Malang
Population (1930) : 1,713,536
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Malang and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Malang, Pasoeroean and Bangil; with municipality (stadsgemeente) of Malang and Pasoeroean
Primary Resource(s): fruit
6. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Probolinggo
Local Name : Probolinggo
Current English Name : Residency of Probolinggo
Population (1930) : 1,027,569
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Probolinggo and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Probolinggo, Kraksaan and Loemadjang; and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Probolinggo
7. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Besoeki
Local Name : Besuki
Current English Name : Residency of Besuki
Population (1930) : 2,083,309
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Banyuwangi and surroundings, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bondowoso, Panaroekan, Djember and Banjoewangi
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
8. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Madoera
Local Name : Madura
Current English Name : Residency of Madura
Population (1930) : 1,962,462
Modern Area : Madura, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bangkalan, Sampang, Pamekasan and Soemenep
Primary Resource(s): salt
Local Name : Madura
Current English Name : Residency of Madura
Population (1930) : 1,962,462
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Madura, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Bangkalan, Sampang, Pamekasan and Soemenep
Primary Resource(s): salt
Vorstenlanden
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Jogjakarta
Local Name : Yogyakarta
Current English Name : Residency of Yogyakarta
Population (1930) : 1,559,027
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Yogyakarta, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Adikarto, Pakoealaman, Koelon-Progo, Jogjakarta, Bantoel and Goenoeng-Kidul
Primary Resource(s): tobacco
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Soerakarta
Local Name : Surakarta
Current English Name : Residency of Surakarta
Population (1930) : 2,564,848
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Surakarta, consisting of the regencies (regentschap) of Sragen, Soerakarta, Kota Mangkoenagaran, Klaten, Bojolali and Wonogiri
Primary Resource(s): tobacco, sugar
Borneo
In 1938 both of these Residenties were again
united in a Gouvernement of Borneo with its capital at Banjarmasin.
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Westerafdeeling van Borneo
Local Name : Kalimantan Barat
Current English Name : Residency of Western Kalimantan
Population (1930) : 802,447
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : West Kalimantan, consisting of the Afdeelingen of Singkawang, Pontianak, Ketapang and Sintang
Primary Resource(s): gold
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Zuider en Oosterafdeeling van Borneo
Local Name : Kalimantan Selatan dan Timur
Current English Name : Residency of South and East Kalimantan
Population (1930) : 1,366,214
Modern Area : Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and North Kalimantan, consisting of the afdeelingen of Koeala Kapoeas, Bandjermasin, Hoeloe Soengei, Samarinda and Boeloengan en Berau; with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Bandjermasin
Primary Resource(s): diamond, oil, black pepper, timber
Groote Oost
Current English Name : Residency of South and East Kalimantan
Population (1930) : 1,366,214
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and North Kalimantan, consisting of the afdeelingen of Koeala Kapoeas, Bandjermasin, Hoeloe Soengei, Samarinda and Boeloengan en Berau; with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Bandjermasin
Primary Resource(s): diamond, oil, black pepper, timber
Groote Oost
The Gouvernement van Groote Oost was a gouvernement of the
Dutch East Indies created in 1938. It comprised all the islands to the east of
Borneo and Java.
Lesser Sunda Islands
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Bali en Lombok
Local Name : Bali dan Lombok
Current English Name : Residency of Bali and Lombok
Population (1930) : 1,802,683
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Bali and Lombok, consisting of the afdeelinen) of Bali and Lombok
Primary Resource(s): rice
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Timor en Onderhoorigheden
Local Name : Timor
Current English Name : Residency of Timor and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 1,657,376
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : West Nusa Tenggara East of Lombok and East Nusa Tenggara, consisting of the divisions (afdeeling) of Soembawa, Soemba, Flores and Timor en eilanden
Primary Resource(s): sandalwood
Sulawesi
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Celebes en Onderhoorigheden
Local Name : Sulawesi
Current English Name : Residency of Celebes and Dependencies
Population (1930) : 3,093,251
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi, consisting of the afdeelingen of Bonthain, Makassar, Bone, Pare-pare, Mandar, and Loewoe, Boetoeng en Laiwoei and with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Makassar
Primary Resource(s): fish, cotton, gold
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Residentie Manado
Local Name : Manado
Current English Name : Residency of Manado
Population (1930) : 1,138,665
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Central Sulawesi, Gorontalo and North Sulawesi, consisting of the afdeelingen of Poso, Donggala, Gorontalo, and Manado with the municipalities (stadsgemeente) of Manado
Primary Resource(s): fish
Maluku and Papua
In 1922 with the dissolution of Residentie Ternate to
Residentie Amboina, Residentie Amboina was renamed to Residentie Molukken. In
1935 the Residentie was renamed to Gouvernement Molukken until the creation of
Gouvernement Groot Oost in 1938, in which Gouvernement Molukken became
residencie again.
1. Name/ Dutch Name : Afdeeling Ternate
Local Name : Maluku
Current English Name : Afdeeling of Ternate
Population (1930) : 560,013
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : North Maluku
Primary Resource(s): clove, nutmeg, mace
2. Name/ Dutch Name : Afdeeling Amboina
Local Name : Maluku
Current English Name : Afdeeling of Amboina
Population (1930) : 560,013
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : Maluku clove
Primary Resource(s): clove, nutmeg, mace
3. Name/ Dutch Name : Afdeeling Nieuw-Guinea
Local Name : Papua
Current English Name : Afdeeling of New Guinea
Population (1930) : 333,387
Modern Area : West Papua and Papua
Primary Resource(s): timber
Armed Forces
Local Name : Papua
Current English Name : Afdeeling of New Guinea
Population (1930) : 333,387
Area (km2) : n/a
Modern Area : West Papua and Papua
Primary Resource(s): timber
Armed Forces
The Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) and the Royal
Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL) were established in 1830 and
1915 respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in
Surabaya, but were never part of the KNIL. The KNIL was a separate branch of
the Royal Netherlands Army, commanded by the Governor-General and funded by the
colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had
the nature of a 'Foreign Legion' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many
other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss
mercenaries). While most officers were Europeans, the majority of soldiers
were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and
Sundanese.
Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of
strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they
would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh, in northern
Sumatra, where the sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in the Strait
of Malacca. Britain was a protector of Aceh and it gave the Netherlands
permission to eradicate the pirates. The campaign quickly drove out the sultan
but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in
four decades of very expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on
both sides. Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against
the population by means of a ‘strategy of awe’. When a guerrilla war did take
place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of
destruction.
Aceh War (1873–1914) between the Netherlands and the Aceh
Sultanate.
By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified"
and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the
KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory
military service for all male conscripts in the European legal class and in
1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a ‘Home guard’
(Dutch: Landstorm) for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions by
Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people
were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia
of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia
Party objecting. After the declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives
volunteered.
The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males were interned by the Japanese as POW's. 25% of the POW's did not survive their internment.
The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males were interned by the Japanese as POW's. 25% of the POW's did not survive their internment.
Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with
Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite
two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948, Dutch efforts to
re-establish their colony failed and the Netherlands recognised Indonesian
sovereignty in December 1949.
The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military. At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in the Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers include: Suharto second president of Indonesia, Nasution supreme commander of the Indonesian army and Alexander Evert Kawilarang founder of the elite special forces Kopassus.
The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military. At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in the Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers include: Suharto second president of Indonesia, Nasution supreme commander of the Indonesian army and Alexander Evert Kawilarang founder of the elite special forces Kopassus.
Culture
Language and Literature
Across the archipelago, hundreds of native languages are
used, and Malay or Portuguese Creole, the existing languages of trade were
adopted. Prior to 1870, when Dutch colonial influence was largely restricted to
Java, Malay was used in government schools and training programs such that
graduates could communicate with groups from other regions who immigrated to
Java.
The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based on the version from Riau and Malacca, and dictionaries were commissioned for governmental communication and schools for indigenous peoples. In the early 20th century, Indonesia's independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called it Indonesian. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard Malay" as the language of the colony.
The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based on the version from Riau and Malacca, and dictionaries were commissioned for governmental communication and schools for indigenous peoples. In the early 20th century, Indonesia's independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called it Indonesian. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard Malay" as the language of the colony.
Dutch was not made the official language of the colony and was
not widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population. The majority of
legally acknowledged Dutchmen were bi-lingual Indo Eurasians. Dutch was
only used by a limited educated elite, and in 1942, around two percent of the
total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch including over 1 million
indigenous Indonesians. A number of Dutch loan words are used in
present-day Indonesian, particularly technical terms (see List of Dutch loan
words in Indonesian). These words generally had no alternative in Malay and
were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into
which concepts are part of the Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier of the
University of California says that about a fifth of contemporary Indonesian language
can be traced to Dutch.
Dutch language literature has been inspired by both colonial
and post-colonial Indies from the Dutch Golden Age to the present day. It
includes Dutch, Indo-European and Indonesian authors. Its subject matter
thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era, but also includes
postcolonial discourse. Masterpieces of this genre include Multatuli's Max
Havelaar: Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company, Louis Couperus's
Hidden Force, E. du Perron's Country of Origin, and Maria Dermoût's The Ten Thousand
Things.
Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo-European
authors, however, in the first half of the 20th century under the Ethical
Policy, indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands
to study and work. They wrote Dutch language literary works and published
literature in literary reviews such as Het Getij, De Gemeenschap, Links Richten
and Forum. By exploring new literary themes and focusing on indigenous
protagonists, they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous
plight. Examples include the Javanese prince and poet Noto Soeroto, a writer
and journalist, and the Dutch language writings of Soewarsih Djojopoespito,
Chairil Anwar, Kartini, Sutan Sjahrir and Sukarno.
Much of the postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the "avant garde visionary" Tjalie Robinson, who is the best read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia and second generation Indo-European immigrants like Marion Bloem.
Much of the postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the "avant garde visionary" Tjalie Robinson, who is the best read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia and second generation Indo-European immigrants like Marion Bloem.
Visual Art
The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of
artists and painters, that mostly capture the romantic scenes of colonial
Indies. The term Mooi Indie (Dutch for "Beautiful Indies") was
originally coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel's watercolor
paintings which depicted the scene of East Indies published in Amsterdam in
1930. The term became famous in 1939 after S. Sudjojono used it to mock the
painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies.
Mooi Indie later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanoes, rice paddies, river valleys, villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes bare-chested native women.
Some of the notable Mooi Indie painters are European artists: F.J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp, Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli; East Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers, Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters: Raden Saleh, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, Basuki Abdullah, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also Chinese painters: Lee Man Fong, Oei Tiang Oen and Biau Tik Kwie. These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal Kolff & Co and Hotel Des Indes.
Mooi Indie later would identified as the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanoes, rice paddies, river valleys, villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes bare-chested native women.
Some of the notable Mooi Indie painters are European artists: F.J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp, Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli; East Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers, Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters: Raden Saleh, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, Basuki Abdullah, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also Chinese painters: Lee Man Fong, Oei Tiang Oen and Biau Tik Kwie. These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal Kolff & Co and Hotel Des Indes.
Theatre and Film
A total of 112 fictional films are known to have been
produced in the Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony's dissolution in
1949. The earliest motion pictures, imported from abroad, were shown in late
1900, and by the early 1920s imported serials and fictional films were
being shown, often with localised names. Dutch companies were also
producing documentary films about the Indies to be shown in the
Netherlands. The first locally produced film, Loetoeng Kasaroeng, was
directed by L. Heuveldorp and released on 31 December 1926.
Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released. During the mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the Great Depression. The rate of production declined again after the Japanese occupation beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio. The majority of films produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts. Following the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945 and during the ensuing revolution several films were made, by both pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.
Between 1926 and 1933 numerous other local productions were released. During the mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the Great Depression. The rate of production declined again after the Japanese occupation beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio. The majority of films produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts. Following the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945 and during the ensuing revolution several films were made, by both pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.
Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with
traditional stories or were adapted from existing works. The early films
were silent, with Karnadi Anemer Bangkong (Karnadi the Frog Contractor; 1930)
generally considered the first talkie; later films would be in Dutch,
Malay, or an indigenous language. All were black-and-white. The American visual
anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all films from before 1950 are
lost.
However, JB Kristanto's Katalog Film Indonesia (Indonesian Film Catalogue) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia's archives, and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service.
However, JB Kristanto's Katalog Film Indonesia (Indonesian Film Catalogue) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia's archives, and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service.
Theatre plays by playwrights such as Victor Ido (1869–1948)
were performed at the Schouwburg Weltevreden, now known as Gedung Kesenian
Jakarta. A less elite form of theatre, popular with both European and
indigenous people, were the travelling Indo theatre shows known as Komedie
Stamboel, made popular by Auguste Mahieu (1865–1903).
Science
The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies
attracted European intellectuals, scientists and researchers. Some notable
scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies
archipelago are Teijsmann, Junghuhn, Eijkman, Dubois and Wallace. Many
important art, culture and science institutions were established in Dutch East
Indies.
For example, the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, (Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences), the predecessor of the National Museum of Indonesia, was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially history, archaeology, ethnography and physics. The Bogor Botanical Gardens with Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817, with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago.
For example, the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, (Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences), the predecessor of the National Museum of Indonesia, was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially history, archaeology, ethnography and physics. The Bogor Botanical Gardens with Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817, with the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago.
Java Man was discovered by Eugène Dubois in 1891. Komodo
dragon was first described by Peter Ouwens in 1912, after an aeroplane crash
accident in 1911 and rumours about living dinosaurs in Komodo Island in 1910.
Vitamin B1 and its relation to beriberi disease was discovered by Eijkman
during his work in the Indies.
Cuisine
The Dutch colonial families through their domestic servants
and cooks were exposed to Indonesian cuisine, as the result they developed a
taste for native tropical spices and dishes. A notable Dutch East Indies
colonial dish is rijsttafel, the rice table that consists of 7 to 40 popular
dishes from across the colony. More an extravagant banquet than a dish, the
Dutch colonials introduced the rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide
array of dishes at a single setting but also to impress visitors with the
exotic abundance of their colony.
Through colonialism the Dutch introduced European dishes
such as bread, cheese, barbecued steak and pancake. As the producer of cash
crops; coffee and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies. Bread,
butter and margarine, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam,
poffertjes, pannekoek and Dutch cheeses were commonly consumed by colonial
Dutch and Indos during the colonial era.
Some of the native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine.
Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch influenced: they include selat solo (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), semur (from Dutch smoor), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and sop buntut. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), pandan cake, lapis legit (spekkoek), spiku (lapis Surabaya), klappertaart (coconut tart), and kaasstengels (cheese cookies). Kue cubit commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.
Some of the native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine.
Some dishes which were created during the colonial era are Dutch influenced: they include selat solo (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), semur (from Dutch smoor), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and sop buntut. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), pandan cake, lapis legit (spekkoek), spiku (lapis Surabaya), klappertaart (coconut tart), and kaasstengels (cheese cookies). Kue cubit commonly found in front of schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.
Architecture
The 16th and 17th century arrival of European powers in
Indonesia introduced masonry construction to Indonesia where previously timber
and its by-products had been almost exclusively used. In the 17th and 18th
centuries, Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city. For almost two
centuries, the colonialists did little to adapt their European architectural
habits to the tropical climate. They built row houses which were poorly
ventilated with small windows, which was thought as protection against tropical
diseases coming from tropical air.[ Years later the Dutch learnt to adapt
their architectural styles with local building features (long eaves, verandahs,
porticos, large windows and ventilation openings), and the 18th century
Dutch Indies country houses was one of the first colonial buildings to
incorporate Indonesian architectural elements and adapt to the climate, the
known as Indies Style.
From the end of the 19th century, significant improvements
to technology, communications and transportation brought new wealth to Java.
Modernistic buildings, including train stations, business hotels, factories and
office blocks, hospitals and education institutions, were influenced by
international styles. The early 20th century trend was for modernist
influences—such as art-deco—being expressed in essentially European buildings
with Indonesian trim. Practical responses to the environment carried over from
the earlier Indies Style, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and
ventilation in the walls, which gave birth to the New Indies Style.
The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers, Thomas Karsten, Henri Maclaine Pont, J. Gerber and C.P.W. Schoemaker. In the first three decades of the 20th century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.
The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large cities of Java, such as Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya. Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers, Thomas Karsten, Henri Maclaine Pont, J. Gerber and C.P.W. Schoemaker. In the first three decades of the 20th century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.
A lack of development in the Great Depression, the turmoil
of the Second World War and the Indonesia's independence struggle of the 1940s,
and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and 1960s, meant
that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent
decades. Colonial homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy
Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites, however the styles were often rich and
creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought
after into the 21st century. Native architecture was arguably more
influenced by the new European ideas than colonial architecture was influenced
by Indonesian styles; and these Western elements continue to be a dominant
influence on Indonesia's built environment today.
Colonial Heritage in the Netherlands
In The Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands
urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian
trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants'
income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch
society. When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815, much of
its wealth came from Colonial trade.
Universities such as the Royal Leiden University founded in
the 16th century have developed into leading knowledge centres about Southeast
Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced academics
such as Colonial adviser Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje who specialised in native
oriental (Indonesian) affairs, and it still has academics who specialise in
Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV
are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an
intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific
institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an
anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture,
ethnography and anthropology.
The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the Regiment
Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army and the dedicated Bronbeek
Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.
Dutch newsreel dated 1927 showing a Dutch East Indian fair
in the Netherlands featuring Indo and Indigenous people from the Dutch East
Indies performing traditional dance and music in traditional attire.
Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who
moved back to the Netherlands after Independence tended to look back on the
colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the colony,
with such items as the 1970s book Tempo Doeloe (Old times) by author Rob
Nieuwenhuys, and other books and materials that became quite common in the
1970s and 1980s. Moreover, since the 18th century Dutch literature has a
large number of established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The
Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of
inspiration. In fact one of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is
the book "Max Havelaar" written by Multatuli in 1860.
The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands
after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the
islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had
developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as
belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to
as Indo (short for Indo-European). Of the 296,200 so called Dutch 'repatriants'
only 92,200 were expatriate Dutchmen born in the Netherlands.
Including their 2nd generation descendants, they are
currently the largest foreign born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch
Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first and second
generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully
assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands,
these 'Repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of
Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture. Practically each town in the
Netherlands will have a 'Toko' (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or Indonesian
restaurant and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs
are organised throughout the year.
Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become
commonplace in the Dutch Cuisine. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and
dishes such as Nasi goreng and sateh are still very popular in the
Netherlands.
Source :Wikipedia
Source :Wikipedia
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